Human performance under simulated lunar lighting conditions : is it possible to walk on the moon ?

Moon colonization has been within our capabilities since the Apollo era. Even though technology maturation has increased this capability and decreased the cost for private firms to potentially colonize the Moon, this has not been developed to date. During the Apollo program, lunar surface operational activities were limited due to luminescence and reflectance lighting issues, which indicate that human body mobility on the Moon may be restricted during extrave-hicular activities. We aimed to examine human performance on a simulated Moon environment during extravehicular activities by identifying visual restrictions that can affect body mobility due to the lunar surface. Within an artificial lunar environment we measured walking time of our participants who completed three walking tasks under lunar simulated continuous light, lunar simulated strobe light and normal electricity Earth light. We found mean differences between walking time with all lighting conditions. We conclude that astronauts may have decreased body mobility during extrave-hicular activities under simulated Moon lighting conditions.


REPORTING OF OUTCOMES
The baseline characteristics of the participants can be found in Table 1.We identified significant mean differences between performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition and performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition as well as between performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition and performance during "normal Earth light" condition (FIGURE 2).Also, we identified a significant mean difference between performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition and "normal Earth light" condition (FIGURE 2).
Finally, the analysis of variance revealed no significant differences in performance between men and women.We detected a significant positive association between age and performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition (FIGURE 3A), as well as a significant positive association between age and performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition (FIGURE 3B).
Nevertheless, no correlation was detected between age and performance under "normal Earth light" condition.
Linear regression analysis revealed that the correlation between age and performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition as well as performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition persists.The linear regression analysis, however, detected no correlation between age and performance under "normal Earth light" condition.Finally, no correlation was detected between body mass index (BMI) and performance either during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition or during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition.
We also identified a negative association between maximum oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) and age (FIGURE 4A), as well as VO 2 max and BMI (FIGURE 4B).
Furthermore, we found a negative association between VO 2 max and performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition (FIGURE 4C), as well as performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition (FIGURE 4D).No relationship between VO 2 max and performance during "normal Earth light" condition was detected.The linear regression analysis detected an association between VO 2 max and performance during simulated "continuous light" lunar condition as well as performance during simulated "strobe light" lunar condition while no association between VO 2 max and performance during "normal Earth light" condition was detected.

DISCUSSION
The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of simulated lunar lighting conditions and impeded depth perception on human body mobility in a simulated Moon environment during EVAs.We detected that "continuous light" and "strobe light" simulated lunar conditions may reduce human body mobility on an artificial Moon surface compared to Earth's conditions.It was observed from the first space missions that astronauts were not likely to observe objects on the Moon that are not exposed to direct sunlight 15 .Also, the reflectance of the lunar surface is characterized by a peaked backscatter in the direction of the source 15 .Backscattering is a reflection of waves, particles, or signals back to the direction from which these waves, particles, or signals came.On Earth the materials are diffuse reflectors while there are some scattering components 15 .Also, in Earth's atmosphere isotropic illuminance can be observed even in shadowed areas 15 .This is completely absent on the Moon, which is why the Apollo astronauts were not likely to observe objects that were not exposed to direct sunlight 15 .
Strobe lights can simulate backscatter, which significantly increases the reaction time to visual stimuli 13 .This is because strobe lights flash up to hundreds of times per second and stop the appearance of motion.Therefore, the simulated "strobe light" lunar condition in our study may have reduced the reaction time of our participants, decreasing their body mobility.Correspondingly, the simulated "continuous light" lunar condition in our experiment in a fully dark room may have caused difficulties similar to those of the "strobe light" condition.The "continuous light" simulation in our study may represent the luminescence and reflectance lighting issues that Apollo astronauts came across on the lunar surface 11 .Indeed, on the lunar surface there is no time for the eye to adjust to the Earthshine in order to observe details on the Moon surface given that the transition across the terminator from the sunlit portion to the Earth lit portion is rapid 11 .In both "strobe light" and "continuous light" simulated lunar conditions we also used seeing glasses that underestimated    We detected an inverse association between VO 2 max and age as well as between VO 2 max and BMI, which is in accordance with previous studies 27,28 .

MALES (N=17) FEMALES (N=15)
Currently, the minimum requirement of VO 2 max given by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for participating in a space mission is 32.9 ml kg -1 min -1 29 , which needs further investigation 29 .The average VO 2 max for untrained healthy individuals is approximately 35-40 ml kg -1 min -1 for male and 27-31 ml kg -1 min -1 for female 30,31 .
Our participants display an average of VO 2 max 40.47±5.40ml kg -1 min -1 for men and 45.81±9.80 ml kg -1 min -1 for women.These values meet both the VO 2 max requirements of NASA 29 and the general population VO 2 max limits for untrained healthy individuals 30,31 .Given that our results indicate a negative correlation  Given that EVAs require space suits against the harmful conditions of space, body mobility would also depend on the mobility and functionality of space suits 32 .Therefore, space suits would further reduce body mobility during EVAs.
Given our findings and also that the future

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has increased this capability and decreased the cost for private firms to potentially colonize the Moon, this has not been developed to date.During the Apollo program, lunar surface operational activities were limited due to luminescence and reflectance lighting issues, which indicate that human body mobility on the Moon may be restricted during extravehicular activities.We aimed to examine human performance on a simulated Moon environment during extravehicular activities by identifying visual restrictions that can affect body mobility due to the lunar surface.Within an artificial lunar environment we measured walking time of our participants who completed three walking tasks under lunar simulated continuous light, lunar simulated strobe light and normal electricity Earth light.We found mean differences between walking time with all lighting conditions.We conclude that astronauts may have decreased body mobility during extravehicular activities under simulated Moon lighting conditions.INTRODUCTION For thousands of years, humans have gazed upon the stars wondering what relationship they have to Earth.This fascination has driven humankind to study scientific phenomena, to discover our origin, and to determine whether we are the only intelligent species in the Universe 1 .For many centuries, discussions have raged about whether we can live outside of Earth's atmosphere either in the space environment or on another planet.As far back as 1638, it was predicted that lunar colonization is feasible 2 , and since the 1950s, many concepts for colonization architectures have been studied and suggested.For instance, in 1959 the "Project Horizon" intended to establish a fort on the Moon by 1967 3 .Recently, Japan announced that they plan to send astronauts to the Moon by 2020 to start construction of a base, which will be completed by 2030 4 .Similarly, Russia plans to create a Moon base by 2032 5 .Among other suggestions there is evidence that a Moon colony can be built in advance using a glass-like solid structure coated with metal 6,7 to be protected by radiation 8,9 in order to extend the colonization period.Also, during a Moon colonization we can test the ability of humans to survive with low gravity and to use the Moon as a facility for space observation 10 .The goal of Moon colonization is nearly within our reach.While we have the technology for the trip to the Moon, building up the colony habitats and operating in a safe and efficient manner creates a whole new set of challenges to be mastered.During the Apollo program, lunar surface operational activities were limited due to luminescence and reflectance lighting issues 11 .Some of the astronaut concerns during this program were the lunar day washout, lunar night earthshine, sun angle reflectance, large shadows and the dark sky horizon 11 .For instance, the astronauts reported that the transition across the terminator from the sunlit portion to the Earth lit portion was rapid, and there was no time for the eye to adjust to the Earthshine in order to observe details on the Moon surface 11 .However, sometimes it was possible to observe details within the shadows of the Earthshine light 11 .Furthermore, the transition from the Earth lit portion of the Moon into the unlit lunar far side was extremely difficult and the astronauts could not observe the gradual decrease of the Earthshine illumination as the terminator was approached 11 .This is probably because the area beyond the terminator was extremely dark and the astronauts could not see beyond this point 11 .Likewise, previous evidence suggests that the depth perception of objects in microgravity is underestimated by astronauts, which may affect their body mobility during exploration missions 12 .Therefore, during extravehicular activities (EVA) human body mobility and vision on the Moon may be affected by the lunar surface and the lighting conditions of the lunar environment as well as the depth perception conditions.Research about human performance during EVAs on the Moon is very difficult given that the environmental conditions of the lunar surface cannot be fully simulated on Earth 11 .The lunar day is ~644 hours.Lunar night still has reflected light from Earth called Earthshine.It is ~76 times brighter than the reflected light from a full Moon onto Earth 11 .Also, the transition from the Earthshine portion of the Moon to the unlighted lunar surface makes surface features difficult to distinguish, as reported by astronauts from Apollo missions 11 .Furthermore, the lunar surface consists of rocks and craters that are difficult to observe during the lunar daytime 11 .We anticipate that in order to create a Moon colony, human body mobility and vision on the Moon's surface should be examined in advance.Humanity aims to improve and keep humans' health in high standards.Spin-off technology has helped to develop devices that are essential for diagnosis and treatment.As such, given a possible colonization of the Moon we may take advantage of technology that would be developed for this purpose.RESULTS RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY Human body mobility and vision are key elements for human life.This paper aims to address the aspect of human body mobility on a simulated Moon environment by identifying the combination of visual and body mobility restrictions due to the lunar surface (rocks and craters).This may direct future research in the area that could develop spin-off technology that may benefit human health on Earth and/ or predict health problems during a colonization of the Moon.AIM OF THE STUDY We planned a research study to test the effects of lunar lighting conditions and impeded depth perception on human body mobility in a simulated lunar environment.Individuals' body mobility was examined by measuring walking time through an obstacle course under "lunar-like" conditions.We hypothesized that the lunar simulated lighting conditions and different depth perception will reduce individuals' body mobility as compared to Earth lighting and depth perception conditions.EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We created an obstacle course emulating lunar surface shadows and depth perception considerations within a 50 m 2 basement.Due to safety concerns, extreme inclines were not tested.We included seven obstacles no more than 30 cm in height, two pallets (height 20 cm) and one small circle (FIGURE 1).A Fenix TK15 flashlight was used and adjusted on each participant's head (PICTURE 1) to simulate the "continuous light" and the "strobe light" lunar conditions in a completely dark room.Both continuous and strobe light of the Fenix TK15 flashlight was adjusted to 400 lumens per square meter for each participant.The room's electric light was used to simulate the Earth's lighting conditions as a control situation.The "continuous light" condition represented the luminescence and reflectance lighting issues that Apollo astronauts came across on the lunar surface 11 while the "strobe light" represented the backscatter conditions of the lunar surface 13 .Finally, we used Picture Positioning of flashlight and seeing glasses on the head of each participant.
Human performance under simulated lunar lighting conditions: is it possible to walk on the moon?Vol.14, No.1 | 2016 | hypothesis journal.comas an "Earth light" condition a normal lighting room given that our aim was to compare Earth's conditions with simulated Moon conditions.Each participant wore a pair of seeing glasses (PICTURE 1) that underestimated depth perception simulating the space environment only during the "continuous light" and "strobe light" conditions.In the initial phase, one investigator measured the distance difference, by using a tape measure, between seeing an object with and without wearing the seeing glasses to determine the depth perception that the seeing glasses caused (approximately one meter).Additionally, the participants reported that they were free from visual, vestibular and body disabilities; however, their eyesight was not assessed.All participants used the same pair of seeing glasses.Each participant had to complete three walking tasks on the artificial surface in three different lighting conditions -"continuous light" and "strobe light" simulating lunar lighting conditions within a dark room as well as "normal Earth light" under the room's 60 watt bulbs simulating Earth's lighting condition.During the "normal light" condition walking task, the participants wore neither the flashlight nor the seeing glasses.The weight of the flashlight was 207.2 g including headgear and batteries.The participants were asked if the headgear and flashlight caused any discomfort that would prevent them to walk normally independently of the lighting conditions.No discomfort or navigation problems were reported from the participants.We measured walking time from a sitting (start) to a sitting (stop) position during each task.There was a 5-minute break between each walking task to ensure the eye adaptation from darkness to light 14 .Additionally, we first examined the "continuous light" and "strobe light" conditions that were in the dark room and thereafter we examined the "normal Earth light" condition.Before the experimental runs we instructed every participant to walk normally according to his/ her abilities and not to run or jump over the obstacles.We briefly showed them the route under full room electric lighting to familiarize them.An investigator was following each participant in every task to prevent any accident.As a precaution before and after each task, we checked the status of the participants against dizziness, tiredness and discomfort.The participants did not display any problem during the experiment.

Figure 1 |
Figure 1 | Diagram of the obstacle course The dimensions of the room are 5 m X 10 m.The participant starts from a sitting position, steps over obstacles A, B, C and D, steps onto pallet A and steps into the circle.Then, the participant steps over obstacles E, F, and G, turns 180° and again steps over obstacles G, F, and E, steps into the circle, steps onto pallet B and takes a sitting position to complete the course.The walking distance is approximately 42-45 m and is the same for each condition.
Human performance under simulated lunar lighting conditions: is it possible to walk on the moon?Vol.14, No.1 | 2016 | hypothesis journal.com Human performance under simulated lunar lighting conditions: is it possible to walk on the moon?Vol.14, No.1 | 2016 | hypothesis journal.comdepth perception to simulate the impeded estimation of distance in microgravity.We found that the simulated lunar lighting conditions along with the simulated depth perception (approximately one meter) reduced the body mobility of our participants in comparison to the normal Earth lighting conditions and depth perception.Regarding depth perception, our findings are in accordance with previous evidence that showed that astronauts underestimate distances in microgravity12 .In our study we did not use a random order of the different lighting conditions to assess the walking time of the participants and therefore, a learning effect might have occurred.A previous task force report of the European Respiratory Society and the American Thoracic Society regarding the 6-minute walking test in patients and healthy individuals reported that more studies are needed to confirm a learning effect during repeated measurements of this test 16 .Generally speaking, a learning effect in walking time of repeated measures in humans requires identical tasks to be performed in a row 16 .Indeed, previous research has shown that walking at different speeds was used to avoid a learning effect phenomenon even though the participants walked the same path on a treadmill 17 .In our experiment the lighting and vision conditions were different for each task that was performed by the participants while we have used a familiarization phase for them before the experimental process.In this regard, our participants undertook the obstacle course once before the actual measurements were taken in order to familiarize them with the obstacle course and to minimize the learning effect in their walking performance.Also, a previous study suggested that three walks are needed in the 6-minute walking test in patients and healthy individuals in order to achieve the best performance due to a learning effect in walking 18 .Nevertheless, in our study each lighting condition was performed only once, which suggests that it is unlikely for a learning effect to have affected performance in every lighting condition.Furthermore, a previous study examining the performance in a shuttle walking test of patients suffering from chronic airway obstruction reported a learning effect after four identical tests that improved the performance of the participants by 96% 19 .While in our study the participants performed three nonidentical tasks, with an improvement between the first (continuous light) and second (strobe light) conditions of 9.1% and between the second and third (Earth light) conditions of 30.5%.Furthermore, the fact that we did not detect either a significant correlation or a significant regression between VO 2 max and "normal Earth light" while we detected a significant correlation and regression between VO 2 max and both "continuous light" and "strobe light" conditions strongly indicates that the performance of the participants was affected by the Moon simulated lighting and depth perception conditions and not by their ability to walk effectively.We also found that aging may reduce human body mobility on a simulated Moon surface.Previous research on Earth showed a natural decline in body

Figure 2 |
Figure 2 | Mean recorded walking time in three different lighting conditions.Continuous and strobe lights represent lunar simulated conditions.Normal light represents Earth conditions.* Significant differences between continuous light performance and strobe light performance (p=0.002)≠ Significant differences between continuous light performance and normal light performance (p=0.001)¥ Significant differences between strobe light performance and normal light performance (p=0.001)

Figure 3 |
Figure 3 | Correlations between age and continuous light performance (Figure 2A) as well as between age and strobe light performance (Figure 2B).Continuous and strobe light represent simulated lunar conditions.
Human performance under simulated lunar lighting conditions: is it possible to walk on the moon?Vol.14, No.1 | 2016 | hypothesis journal.com between VO 2 max and human body mobility in a simulated Moon environment we reinforce NASA's suggestion for further development of the standards for assessing body mobility of astronauts 29 .Our study refers only to human performance during EVAs on the Moon.
Moon inhabitants would be exposed to this Moon environment for extended periods of time during EVAs, their performance problems may be even worse than the acute effects we examined in the current study.However, Moon inhabitants may improve their body mobility through adaptations that may occur during their stay on the Moon surface.The problem of restricted body mobility can be addressed by using training programs before potential Moon inhabitants move to the Moon.Indeed, learning programs on Earth have shown that the cognitive ability of adults can be significantly improved within six weeks 33 .Also, specific exercise programs can be used to improve the body mobility of potential Moon inhabitants.These two elements, cognitive and physical training, may help future Moon inhabitants to improve their adaptation in order to be able to overcome visual and performance problems.Given the existing evidence regarding physical and cognitive performance 33-36 we anticipate that this training period would be no more than 10 weeks, but would depend on age and physical fitness.This estimate is based on previous evidence 33-36 of human physical and cognitive training under Earth conditions.However, the length of this training period focuses only on physical and cognitive performance and does not take into consideration other aspects such as psychological preparation and technical knowledge that the potential Moon inhabitants should obtain before moving to the Moon.